Corporate Social Responsibility (Blog 10)

Definition to Corporate Social Responsibility

Jamali (2015) explains that CSR is the obligation for business organisations to impact the society in which they operate beyond the singular motive of pure profit maximization and further she emphasise the role of HRM in the development of internal CSR initiatives by claiming that the nature of the organisation’s CSR objectives has impact on the role of HRM in developing these objectives. Sahlin-Anderson (2006), considers CSR as a global trend incorporating business corporations, states, international organizations and civil society organizations.

                                                    Video 1: What is CSR

Human Resource is a strategic partner in an organisation and as such, can help drive the formulation of the CSR strategy. This is the case especially in companies where CSR is positioned in HR department and thus the HR manager has a key role when it comes to CSR strategy development (Strandberg, 2009). According to Cohen (2010), HR can leverage CSR strategies to deliver greater benefits for the business, for employees, for society, for the environment and ultimately, for HR professionals themselves.

Carroll’s Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility

This covers the Economic, Legal, Ethical and Philanthropic responsibilities of an organisation.

            ( Figure 1 : Carroll’s Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility )

Economic responsibility: Companies have a responsibility of an economic nature, since they have a responsibility to produce goods and services that society wants and sell them in a profitable way. The basis for the functioning of a company is producing and selling goods for profit.

Legal liability: The company expects companies to undertake their economic mission within the legal requirements established by the legal system of society. It is expected that the company complies with laws and regulations or that the products and services offered by companies have security standards and comply with existing environmental regulations.

Ethical responsibility: Represents ethical behaviors that are expected that companies have. This has become more important, because the tolerance of society against unethical behavior is dwindling. The decision should consider the consequences of their actions, honoring the rights of others, fulfilling obligations and avoiding harming others.

Philanthropic responsibility: Represents discretionary actions taken by the company in response to social expectations. They respect the activities undertaken by companies assuming a social role that goes beyond the legal and ethical obligation, assuming an increasingly strategic importance. Examples: charitable contributions, employee training, extension of benefits to employees' families.

The Benefits of Corporate Social Responsibility

A successful CSR initiative takes organisation beyond compliance with legislation and leads them to honour ethical values and respect people, communities and the natural environment. CSR is sustainable - involving activities that organisation can maintain without adversely affecting your business goals (Geethamani, 2017).

( Figure 2: benefits of CSR ) 

Researcher Geethamani (2017) express Advantages and Disadvantages of CSR,

Advantages of CSR

• Companies would know what is expected of them, thereby promoting a level playing field.

• Many aspects of CSR behaviour are good for business (such as reputation, human resources, branding and making it easier to locate in new communities) and legislation

• It could help to improve profitability, growth and sustainability.

• Some areas, such as downsizing, could help to redress the balance between companies and their employees.

• Rogue companies would find it more difficult to compete through lower standards.

• The wider community would benefit as companies reach out to the key issue of underdevelopment around the world.

Disadvantages of CSR

• Additional bureaucracy, with rising costs for observance.

• Costs of operation could rise above those required for continued profitability and sustainability.

• Critics already argue that the CSR of companies is simply to make a profit, and legislation would increase the vocalisation of these concerns.

• Reporting criteria vary so much by company, sector and country, and they are in constant evolution.

References

• Carroll, A. B. (1979) ‘A three dimensional conceptual model of corporate social performance’, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 4(4), pp. 497-505. 

• Cohen, E. (2010) ‘CSR for HR: A necessary partnership for advancing responsible business practices’, Sheffield: Greenleaf Publishing Limited.

• Geethamani, S. (2017) ‘International Journal of Applied Research’, Vol. 3(3), pp. 372-374. [Online] Available at: http://www.allresearchjournal.com/archives/2017/vol3issue3/PartF/3-3-11-827.pdf [Accessed on: 02 October 2018]. 

• Jamali, D. R., El-Dirani, A. M. and Harwood, I. A. (2015) ‘Exploring human resource management roles in corporate social responsibility: the CSR-HRM co-creation model. Business Ethics’, A European Review, Vol. 24(2), pp. 125-143.

• Sahlin-Anderson, K. (2006) ‘Corporate social responsibility: A trend and a movement, but of what and for what?’ Corporate Governance, Vol. 6(5), pp. 595-608.

• Strandberg, C. (2009) ‘The role of human resource management in corporate social responsibility’, Burnaby: Industry Canada.

• Figure 1:   PIDGETHINK (2018) Carroll’s Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility, [Online] Available at: https://pidgethink.net/the-beginning-of-my-journey-in-exploring-business-ethics [Accessed on: 02 October 2018].

• Figure 2: Benefits of CSR : [Online] Available at: https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-benefits-of-corporate-social-responsibility-to-companies [Accessed on: 02 October 2018].

• Video 1: What is CSR. [Online] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cSNUyKV1ybo [Accessed 02 on: October 2018].

Organisational Culture (Blog 9)

What is Organisational Culture..?

Culture is the commonly held beliefs, attitudes and values that exist in an organization. Put more simply, culture is ‘the way we do things around here’ (Furnham and Gunter, 1993). Brown (1998) states that “current interests in organisational culture stems from at least four different sources: climate research, national cultures, human resource management and from conviction approaches which emphasise the rational and structural nature of the organisation to be unable to offer a full explanation of organisational behaviour”.

“Organisational culture is the distinctive norms, beliefs, principles and ways of behaving that combine to give each organisation its distinct character” (Arnold, 2005). Schein (1985) also defines organisational culture as “a pattern of basic assumptions invented, discovered, or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration that has worked well enough to be considered valid, and therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems”.

Functions of Organisational Culture

(Figure 1:Functions of Culture)

Brown (1998) states the following functions of organisational culture:

Conflict reduction - A common culture promotes consistency of perception, problem definition, evaluation of issues and opinions, and preferences for action. 

Coordination and control - Largely because culture promotes consistency of outlook it also facilitates organisational processes of coordination and control.

Reduction of uncertainty - Adopting of the cultural mind frame is an anxiety reducing device which simplifies the world of work, makes choices easier and rational action seem possible. 

Motivation - An appropriate and cohesive culture can offer employees a focus of identification and loyalty, foster beliefs and values that encourage employees to perform. 

Competitive advantage - Strong culture improves the organisation’s chances of being successful in the marketplace.

The Components of Organisational Culture

(Figure 2: key elements of organisational culture)

As per Armstrong and Taylor (2014), Organisational culture can be described in terms of values, norms, artefacts and management or leadership style.

Values

Values are beliefs in what is best or good for the organisation and what should or ought to happen. The ‘value set’ of an organisation may only be recognised at top level, or it may be shared throughout the business, in which case the business could be described as value-driven.

Norms

Norms tell people what they are supposed to be doing, saying, believing, and even wearing. They are passed on by word of mouth or behaviour and can be enforced by the reactions of people if they are violated.

Artefacts

Artefacts are the visible and tangible aspects of an organisation that people hear, see or feel and which contributes to their understanding of the organisation’s culture. Artefacts can include such things as the working environment, the tone and language used in e-mails, letters, people address each other. Artefacts can be very revealing.

Management style

The approach managers’ use to deal with people, their management or leadership style is a significant part of the culture of an organisation. Every manager has his or her own style but this will be influenced by the organisational culture, which may produce a prevailing management style that represents a behavioral norm for managers that is generally expected and adopted.

References

• Armstrong, M. and Taylor, S. (2014) ‘Armstrong’s Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice’, 13^th edn., London, Kogan page.

• Arnold, J. (2005) 'Work Psychology: Understanding Human Behaviour in the Workplace', 4th edn., London: Prentice Hall Financial Times.

• Brown, A. (1998) 'Organisational Culture', 2nd edn., London: Financial Times Pitman Publishing.

• Furnham, A. and Gunter, B. (1993) 'Corporate Assessment', Routledge, London.

• Schein, E. H. (1985) 'Organizational Culture and Leadership', 1st edn., San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

• Figure 1: Functions of Culture :[online] Available at:  http://genesisventures.us/company-culture-diagram.html [Accessed on : 01 October 2018].

• Figure 2: Kaplan Financial Knowledge Bank (2012) Key elements of organisational culture: [online] Available at: http://kfknowledgebank.kaplan.co.uk/KFKB/Wiki%20Pages/Organisational%20Culture.aspx [Accessed on : 01 October 2018].

The Global Context for HRM (Blog 8)

Definition to Global HRM

In relation to HRM, globalisation is presented as a force that even if not yet leading to convergence in HR practice is certainly leading to a challenge to national mindsets (Sparrow and Hiltrop, 1997).

With the advent of globalisation, organisations - big or small have ceased to be local, they have become global. This has increased the workforce diversity and cultural sensitivities have emerged like never before. All this led to the development of Global Human Resource Management.

(Video 1: International HRM)

ManagementStudyGuide (2018), enumerate the objectives of global HRM as follows:

• Create a local appeal without compromising upon the global identity.
• Generating awareness of cross cultural sensitivities among managers globally and hiring of staff across geographic boundaries.
• Training upon cultures and sensitivities of the host country.

The Impact of Technology on Global HRM

Technical evolution is intimately connected with the development of service center models. Consequently, more and more service center activities can now be put online in order to develop the ethos of employee self-service or self-reliance. Operations behind the scenes to handle this service may be managed in-house or may be outsourced to firms that have the technological expertise to offer such services at low cost, but the ability to answer employee questions on behalf of the employing organisation (Ulrich, 2000).

(Figure 1: Impact of Information Technology on HRM)

Ghoshal and Gratton (2002) express four important integration activities that the corporate HR center can make a unique contribution as noted below,

• Operational integration through standardized technology. - e-enablement of HR on a global scale. Portals can provide a common front to employees and help integrate the HR function around common processes. This is a form of information-based integration within the HR function.

• Intellectual integration through the creation of a shared knowledge base. -  By focusing on creating, sharing and exchanging knowledge both within and beyond the HR community, corporate HR functions can ensure that the intellectual capital of the function is rapidly codified and shared across constituent HR functions.

• Social integration through the creation of collective bonds of performance. This is where the function develops a clear sense of what it wants to achieve and how it wants to achieve this goal. The shift within global HR towards working through global networks is an example of new patterns of social integration.

• Emotional integration through a sense of shared identity and meaning. This concerns the mobilization of hearts and minds behind change processes. Examine the need for international HR professionals to act as guardians of national culture as they negotiate a new balance between the application of global rule-sets to HR processes and the need for local responsiveness to cultural imperatives.

References

• Ghoshal, S. and Gratton, L. (2002) ‘Integrating the enterprise’, Sloan Management Review, Vol. 44 (1), pp. 31-38.

• ManagementStudyGuide (2018), [Online] Available at : https://www.managementstudyguide.com/global-hrm.htm  [Accessed on: 30th Sept 2018].

• Sparrow, P. R. and Hiltrop, J. M. (1997) ‘Redefining the field of European human resource management: A battle between national mindsets and forces of business transition’, Human Resource Management, Vol. 36 (2), pp. 1-19.

• Ulrich, D. (2000) ‘From eBusiness to her’, Human Resource Planning, Vol. 20(3), pp. 12–21.

• Figure 1: Nelson, (2005) Impact of Information Technology on HRM,  Thomson Canada Limited, [Online] Available at : http://hesed.info/blog/hrm-technologies.abp [Accessed on: 30 Sept 2018].

• Video 1: International HRM, [Online] Available at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r1WzcxtEUps [Accessed on: 30 Sept 2018].

Employee Engagement (Blog 7)

Definition to Employee Engagement

It explains the engagement as ‘an individual’s purpose and focused energy, evident to others in the display of personal initiative, adaptability, effort and persistence directed towards organizational goals’ (Macey et al., 2009).

Kahn (1990) defines employee engagement as “the harnessing of organization members’ selves to their work roles; in engagement, people employ and express themselves physically, cognitively, and emotionally during role performances”.

Employee engagement simply explains as ‘passion for work’. However, the most critical finding is that it is the way in which people are managed that has the most significant impact on engagement levels (Truss et al., 2006).

Ways of achieving Employee Engagement

It has been argued that one of the main drivers of employee engagement is for employees to have the opportunity to feed their view upwards (Truss et al., 2006).

                                        (Figure 1: The potential role of mindsets in unleashing employee engagement)

Storey et al. (2008) have identified seven common factors as below,

1. Vision - The work unit has a clear sense of the future that engages hearts and minds and creates pride among employees.
2. Opportunity - The work on offer provides a chance to grow both personally and professionally, through participation in the work unit’s activities.
3. Incentive - The compensation package is fair and equitable, including base salary, bonus and other financial incentives.
4. Impact - The work itself makes a difference or creates meaning, particularly as it connects the employee with a customer who uses the employee’s work.
5. Community - The social environment includes being part of a team when appropriate and working with co-workers who care.
6. Communication - The flow of information is two-way, so employees are in the know about what is going on.
7. Experimentation - The work hour, dress, and other policies are flexible and designed to adapt to the needs of both the firm and the employee.

Stairs and Galpin (2010) claimed that high levels of engagement have been shown relate to:

• Lower absenteeism and higher employee retention;
• Increased employee effort and productivity;
• Improved quality and reduced error rates;
• Increased sales;
• Higher profitability, earnings per share and shareholder returns;
• Enhanced customer satisfaction and loyalty;
• Faster business growth;
• Higher likelihood of business success

References 

• Kahn, W. A. (1990) ‘Psychological Conditions of Personal Engagement and Disengagement at Work,’ Academy of Management Journal, vol. 33, pp. 692–724.

• Macey, W. H., Schneider, B., Barbera, K. M. and Young, S. A. (2009) 'Employee Engagement', Malden, MA, Wiley-Blackwell.

• Stairs, M. and Galpin, M. (2010) ‘Positive engagement: from employee engagement to workplace happiness’, in (eds) Linley, P. A.,  Harrington, S. and Garcea, N., The Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology and Work, New York, Oxford University Press.

• Storey, J., Welbourne, T. M., Wright, P. and Ulrich, D. (2008) 'The Routledge Companion to Strategic Human Resource Management', John Storey, UK.  pp. 299-31. [Online] available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/300917033_Employee_engagement [Accessed on: 15^th September 2018].

• Truss, C., Soane, E., Edwards, C., Wisdom, K., Croll, A. and Burnett, J. (2006) 'Working Life: Employee Attitudes and Engagement 2006'. London, CIPD.

   

• Figure 1:  The potential role of mindsets in unleashing employee engagement (2018) [Online] available at : https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1053482215000091 [Accessed on: 15^th September 2018].

Performance Management (Blog 6)

What is Performance Management…?

Performance management is a process by which managers and employees in work environment work together to plan, monitor and review objectives and overall contribution enabling perform the best of their abilities to the organization. According to Radnor and McGuire (2004), there has been a revolution in performance management and measurements over the past years. The concept of performance expressed by Brumbrach (1988) was ‘Performance means both behaviours and results. Behaviours emanate from the performer and transform performance from abstraction to action. Not just the instruments for results, behaviours are also outcomes in their own right – the product of mental and physical effort applied to tasks – and can be judged apart from results’.

Performance management is the continuous process of setting objectives, assessing progress and providing on-going coaching and feedback to ensure that employees are meeting their objectives and career goals.

Principles of Performance Management

           
            (Figure 1: Principles of Performance)

Brethower (1972) explains the principles that are helpful in the design and implementation of effective performance management systems as follows.

“…Through a Performance Improvement Analysis, one measures present performance, establishes standards, specifies why behavior is deficient, calculates the net economic value of improvement after the cost of solutions, and places them in priority order.

Being Specific, describe and communicate desired performances and the standards for judging them in terms that are measurable, observable and objective. For any performance shown by the analysis to have sufficient economic value to an organization, measure the frequency of the performance against the desired standards. Provide feedback on performance to the individual involved and to the individual's manager, supervisor, or group leader, rapidly-preferably immediately-with sufficient information to allow for self-correction. Deliver to each individual positive consequence immediately after completion of the performance of the desired behaviors and outputs...”

mba skool.com (2011) introduce Performance Appraisal Process as;

Performance Appraisal Process is defined as the series of steps which are undertaken in an organization (or Employer) to evaluate an employee on a set of pre-defined performance goals. Performance appraisal usually starts with goal setting which is initiated by the employee to set benchmarks or clear objectives on which he/she would like to contribute in the coming appraisal cycle. The performance goals can also be set by the employer in addition to the employee defined goals.

The image below summarizes the basic steps in the performance appraisal process:

(Figure 2: performance appraisal process)

OSCAR principles Performance Management as stated in Free management books (2003);

(Figure 3: OSCAR Principles of Performance Management)

As a manager there are certain things you can do within the appraisal process to help you maximize engagement and encourage your team to attain high levels of performance:

• Be Objective and fair in how you assess your staff at all times, regardless of your personal feelings.
• Set your staff SMART goals that will develop each person to their maximum potential.
• When observing your staff, assess them on the Competencies they display according to the responsibilities of their role.
• Assess individuals based on the role and tasks as outlined in their job description.
• When you Review an individual you should also assess their performance based on the role's contribution to the organization. It is vital that you check that the person has a clear understanding of how their input contributes to the organization's success.

References

• Brethower, D. (1972) ‘Behavior Analysis in Business and Industry: A Total Performance System’. Kalamazoo, MI: Behaviordelia Press.

• Brumbach, G. B. (1988) ‘Some ideas, issues and predictions about performance management’, Public Personnel Management, Winter, pp. 387–402.

• freemanagementbooks (2003), [Online] available at: http://www.free-management-ebooks.com/faqap/perfman-02.htm [Accessed on: 04 September 2018].

• mba skool.com (2011), [Online] available at: https://www.mbaskool.com/business-concepts/human-resources-hr-terms/17494-performance-appraisal-process.html [Accessed on: 04 September 2018].

• Radnor and McGuire, (2004) ‘Performance management in the public sector: fact or fiction?’ International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, Vol. 53 Iss: 3, pp. 245 – 260.

• Figure 1: Pformacademy (2013) Principles of Performance Management:, [Online] Available at: https://pformacademy.wordpress.com/2013/05/24/performance-management-and-kpis/ [Accessed on: 04 September 2018]. 

• Figure 2: mba skool.com (2011) [Online] available at: https://www.mbaskool.com/business-concepts/human-resources-hr-terms/17494-performance-appraisal-process.html [Accessed on: 04 September 2018].

• Figure 3: freemanagementbooks (2003) OSCAR Principles of Performance Management: , [Online] available at: http://www.free-management-ebooks.com/faqap/perfman-02.htm [Accessed on: 04 September 2018].

Job Design (Blog 5)

What is job designing?

Job design has been defined by Davis (1966) as ‘The specification of the contents, methods, and relationships of jobs in order to satisfy technological and organizational requirements as well as the social and personal requirements of the job holder’. Job design is in fact a combination of job content and the work method which has been adopted in the performance of the job (Durai, 2010). Job design has been one of the most effective tools used for optimizing an employee's performance. It can be defined as changing the content and processes of a job to increase an employee’s satisfaction, motivation and productivity (Knapp and Mujtaba, 2010). 

(Video 1: Job Design)

Robertson and Smith (1985) suggest the following five principles of job design:

• To influence skill variety, provide opportunities for people to do several tasks and combine tasks.

• To influence task identity, combine tasks and form natural work units.

• To influence task significance, form natural work units and inform people of the importance of their work.

• To influence autonomy, give people responsibility for determining their own working systems.

• To influence feedback, establish good relationships and open feedback channels.

Job Analysis, Job description and Job Specification as explained in Management Study Guide (2008), 

                                                                   

                                                                        

                                                                            (Figure 1: Analysis of job) 

As explained in Management Study Guide (2008), Job Analysis is a primary tool in collecting and recording two data sets including job description and job specification. Job description includes basic job-related data such as job title, job location, job summary, nature and objectives of a job, tasks and duties to be performed, working conditions, machines, tools and equipment to be used by a prospective worker involved in it.

Job specification is a written statement of educational qualifications, specific qualities, level of experience, physical, emotional, technical and communication skills required to perform a job, responsibilities involved in a job and other unusual sensory demands. Job description and job specification are two integral parts of job analysis. Both data sets are extremely relevant for creating a right fit between job and talent, evaluate performance and analyze training needs and measuring the worth of a particular job.

(Video 2: Job Analysis | How to Define Job Description and Job Specification)

Schuler (1996) explains Advantages and Disadvantages of Job design Approaches

Advantages,

• Ensures predictability and provides clarity.
• Can be efficient productive.
• Satisfies needs for responsibility, provides growth opportunities and knowledge.
• Reduces boredom and increases the morale.
• Lowers turnover
• Provides social interaction, support and variety

Disadvantages,

• May be boring and it may result in absenteeism and turnover
• Some people prefer routine predictability
• May need to pay more, since more skills needed
• Hard to enrich some jobs and may be costly to design some jobs
• Everyone don’t wants to rotate and interaction
• Requires training in interpersonal skills

References

• Davis, L. E. (1966) ‘The design of jobs’, Industrial Relations, p. 6.

• Durai, P. (2010) ‘Human Resource Management’, New Delhi: Pearson Education.

• Knapp, P. R. and Mujtaba, B. G. (2010) ‘Designing, Administering, and Utilizing an Employee Attitude Survey’, Journal of Behavioral Studies in Business, vol.2(1), pp. 1-14.

• MaNAGEMENT STUDY GUIDE (2008) ManagementStudyGuide.com, [Online] available at: https://www.managementstudyguide.com/job-description-specification.htm [Accessed on: 02 September 2018].

• Robertson, I. T. and Smith, M. (1985) ‘Motivation and Job Design’, Institute of Personnel Management, London.

• Schuler, R.S. and Jackson, S.E. (1996) ‘Human Resource Management’, Min/St. Paul : West Publishing, p. 166.

• Figure 1: MANAGEMENT STUDY GUIDE (2008) Analysis of Job: , ManagementStudyGuide.com, [Online] available at: https://www.managementstudyguide.com/job-description-specification.htm [Accessed on: 02 September 2018].

• Video 1: Job Design. [Online] Available at:  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-XCrFQOL6KY [Accessed on: 02 September 2018].

• Video 2: Job Analysis | How to Define Job Description and Job Specification. [Online] Available at:  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AVO8G7YxlZA [Accessed 02 September 2018].

Negotiation in Employee Relations (Blog 4)

Definition of Negotiation

Negotiation is a process between two or more different people or parties intended to reach an understanding, to produce an agreement to find a mutually acceptable solution and satisfy various interests of two people/parties involved in negotiation process. Negotiation is not about maximizing individual gain but about looking for “joint gain”( Menkel-Meadow, 2006). Both or all of the parties aim to win as much as they can from the other while giving away as little as possible (Armstrong, 2006). Lewicki and Hiam (2006) point out that there are four main concerns in any negotiation:

1. Being clear about your goals,
2. Being aware of emotional goals,
3. Recognizing the desired outcomes that are consistent with those goals,
4. Being attentive to the relationship with the other party.

Negotiation Process

skillsyouneed (2011) described stages in the process of negotiation. According to them In Preparation stage, it involves ensuring all the pertinent facts of the situation are known in order to clarify your own position. Undertaking preparation before discussing the disagreement will help to avoid further conflict and unnecessarily wasting time during the meeting. Sometimes it is helpful to take notes during the Discussion stage to record all points put forward in case there is need for further clarification. Through Clarification stage, it is often possible to identify or establish some common ground and goals and viewpoints of both side of the disagreement need to be clarified. Win-win outcome is usually the best result although this may not always be possible. Agreement can be achieved once understanding of both side’s viewpoints and interests has been considered. From the agreement, a Course of Action has to be implemented to carry through the decision. 

Figure 1: Negotiation process

(Source : ISM Dubai)

According to above processes in all steps of a negotiation, the involved parties bargain at a systematic way to decide how to allocate scarce resources and maintain each other’s interest.

Negotiating Skills

Figure 2 : Negotiation Skills
(Source : BusinessPhrases.Net)

Armstrong (2006) describe negotiation skills as,

• Analytical ability – the capacity to assess the key factors which will affect the negotiating stance and tactics of both sides, and to use this assessment to ensure that all the facts and argument that can be used to support the negotiator’s case;

• Empathy – the ability to put oneself in the other party’s shoes to understand not only what they are hoping to achieve but also why they have these expectations and the extent to which they are determined to fulfil them;

• Planning ability – to develop and implement negotiating strategies and tactics but to be prepared to be flexible about the tactics in the light of developments during negotiations;

• Interactive skills – the capacity to relate well with other people, to be persuasive without being domineering, to respond quickly to changing moods and reactions so that the opportunity can be seized to make progress towards consensus;

• Communicating skills – the ability to convey information and arguments clearly, positively and logically while also being prepared to listen to the other side and to respond appropriately.

References :

• Armstrong, M. (2006) ‘A Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice’, 10th edn., London, Kogan Page, pp. 796-804.

• Lewicki, R. J. and Hiam, A. (2006) 'Mastering business negotiation: a working guide to making deals and resolving conflict', Josey-Bass, San Francisco, CA.

• Menkel-Meadow, C. (2006) 'Why hasn’t the world gotten to yes? An appreciation and some reflections'. Negotiation Journal, 22(4): pp. 485–503.

• skillsyouneed (2011). SkillsYouNeed. [Online] Available at: https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/negotiation.html [Accessed on: 01 September 2018].

• Figure 1 : ISM Dubai [Online] Available at: http://ismdubai.com/blog/negotiation-skills/  [Accessed on: 01 September 2018].

• Figure 2 : BusinessPhrases.Net [Online] Available at: https://www.businessphrases.net/negotiation-skills/  [Accessed on: 01 September 2018].